Concepts

Confirmation bias

Existing beliefs can shape which evidence people seek, notice and treat as convincing.

Definition

Confirmation bias is a tendency to seek, interpret or remember information in ways that favor an existing belief or hypothesis over relevant alternatives.

How to understand it

The bias can enter at several stages. A person may choose questions likely to produce support, scrutinize inconvenient evidence more harshly or recall favorable examples more readily. The relevant issue is asymmetric treatment of evidence, not simply holding a belief or eventually reaching a correct conclusion.

A useful response is to specify what would count against the initial explanation before collecting evidence. Comparing alternative accounts can expose missing observations. This is a method of checking reasoning, not a promise that awareness eliminates bias. People can acknowledge uncertainty while still searching selectively for reassurance.

Evidence: (Spielman et al., 2020); (Judgment and Decision Making, n.d.)

Testing a study-space belief

Teaching scenario

A fictional student believes background music improves their studying. They remember a productive afternoon with music and ask friends who enjoy music whether it helps. A classmate suggests recording performance on comparable tasks with and without music, including unsuccessful sessions. The initial search illustrates how evidence can be selected in a belief-favoring way. The proposed comparison would still need to address task difficulty and order. Either condition could ultimately perform better without changing the definition of confirmation bias.

Constructed for learning. This scenario is not a report of an empirical finding or a diagnosis.

Common confusion: Deliberate dishonesty

Confirmation bias can occur without an intention to deceive; dishonesty involves knowingly misrepresenting information.

Evidence: (Spielman et al., 2020); (Judgment and Decision Making, n.d.)

Limits of the concept

  • Disagreement with someone’s conclusion does not establish that their reasoning is biased.
  • Seeking contrary evidence helps evaluate a claim but does not guarantee impartial judgment.

Evidence: (Spielman et al., 2020); (Judgment and Decision Making, n.d.)

Textbook connection

Direct coveragePsychology 2e: 7.3 Problem Solving

This section directly introduces or explains the concept.

Supplementary concepts may extend beyond this section. The source notes below identify the evidence for those details.

Related concepts

Check understanding · Inspect how psychological evidence is built

Sources and inspection notes

Checked October 21, 2026. An inspection date is not a source publication date. Definitions and scenarios on this page are original teaching explanations.

  1. Judgment and decision making. (n.d.). https://nobaproject.com/modules/judgment-and-decision-makingSupplementary conceptual evidence

    Academic module by Max H. Bazerman; accessed module text. Supports bounded judgment and systematic bias; no claim that every shortcut fails. Source checked 21 October 2026.

  2. Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020). Psychology 2e. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/7-3-problem-solvingIntroductory textbook explanation

    This section directly introduces or explains the concept. Section opened and title verified on 21 October 2026.